Improving the nutritional and textural properties of wheat flour tortillas
Abstract
Wheat flour tortillas are the fastest growing segment of the North American baking industry. As this market grows, the search for healthier alternatives to traditional foods also increases. Nutritionally, flour tortillas are rich in carbohydrates that generate a high glycemic index subsequent to ingestion, demonstrating a behaviour similar to white bread. Hence, the formulation of more nutritious tortillas, with higher levels of protein, dietary fiber and antioxidants, appears to be promising. Although the number of publications concerning the nutritional improvement of flour tortillas is limited, attempts utilizing soybean, whole wheat, and triticale flours have been reported. Additionally, as different ingredients are added to traditional formulations, the texture is very likely to be affected, as are the shelf-life and other sensory properties. Among other additives, hydrocolloids have been reported to improve the textural qualities of bakery goods and flour tortillas. They comprise a number of water-soluble polysaccharides with varied chemical structures providing a range of functional properties that make them suitable to this application. This paper discusses the tortilla market, reviews research attempting to develop novel and nutritious products, and discusses the application of hydrocolloids as texture improvers.
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... The process is more efficient than hot-press but tortilla quality is inferior. Handstretch tortillas are larger and thinner than the other methods, and they have an irregular shape and intermediate quality (Anton, 2008; Serna-Saldivar et al., 1988). ...
... The process is more efficient than hot-press but tortilla quality is inferior. Handstretch tortillas are larger and thinner than the other methods, and they have an irregular shape and intermediate quality (Anton, 2008; Serna-Saldivar et al., 1988). Abbreviations: DRE, dough resistance to extension; FL, flour L*; GI, gluten index; HMWeLMW GS, high molecular weight and low molecular weight glutenin subunits ; IPP, insoluble polymeric proteins; MT, mixograph mixing time; PC, protein content; PS, particle size; RD(12), rupture distance at day 12; RF(0), rupture force at day 0; RMSE, root mean square of error; SKH, single-kernel hardness; ST, stability time; SV, specific volume; TD, tortilla diameter; TL, tortilla L*; TPA, texture profile analysis; W(12), work at day 12; WQC, Wheat Quality Council. ...
A cost-effective, faster and efficient way of screening wheat samples suitable for tortilla production is needed. This research aimed to develop prediction models for tortilla quality (diameter, specific volume, color and texture parameters) using grain, flour and dough properties of 16 wheat flours. Another set of 18 samples was used to validate the models. The prediction models were developed using stepwise multiple regression. Dough rheological tests had higher correlations with tortilla quality than grain and flour chemical tests. Mixograph mixing time and dough resistance to extension (from extensibility test using a texture analyzer) were correlated best with tortilla quality, particularly tortilla diameter (r = −0.87 and −0.86 respectively, P < 0.01). Insoluble polymeric proteins (IPP) and gluten index were significantly correlated with tortilla diameter (r = −0.70 and −0.67 respectively, P < 0.01) and specific volume (r = −0.73, P < 0.01). Tortilla diameter was the quality parameter best explained (R2 = 0.86) by the prediction models using mixing time and dough resistance to extension. Rheological parameters such as rupture distance and maximum force were also successfully predicted. These prediction models, developed from linear equations, will be an easy and fast tool for breeders to advance or eliminate wheat lines specifically bred for tortilla production.
... While consumers typically reject bread after one week on the grocery shelf, they expect tortillas to be edible over weeks and even months at a time (Friend, Ross, Waniska, & Rooney, 1995). Various tortilla formulations include hydrocolloids to extend shelf life and retain freshness (Anton, 2008). Comprising a number of watersoluble polysaccharides with varied chemical structures that allow them diverse functional properties, hydrocolloids have wide applications in the food industry, including modification of starch gelatinization (Rojas, Rosell, & de Barber, 1999), and extension of the overall quality of the product with time. ...
... In bakery goods, they act by improving shelf life stability and texture by retaining more moisture and retarding staling. Guar gum has been employed for improving the volume and texture of frozen dough bread (Ribotta, Perez, Leon, & Anon, 2004), while the employment of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) has resulted in soft bread-crumb loaves with higher specific bread volume, improved sensory characteristics and extended shelf life (Anton, 2008;Barcenas & Rosell, 2005;Collar, Armero, & Martinez, 1998). ...
To flour tortillas formulations containing 25 g/100 g of pinto bean flour, 0.5 g/100 g and 0.75 g/100 g of guar gum and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) were added and their shelf stability was studied at 4 and 25 °C over 7 days. Texture, determined instrumentally, rollability, and water holding capacity were the main parameters studied. Selected samples were evaluated by 55 participants to determine consumer acceptability. Firmness and cohesiveness were negatively affected by the addition of bean flour, however, this effect was partially overcome by the addition of hydrocolloids. Guar gum had a positive significant influence on water holding capacity and texture over time (P < 0.001), while CMC had no positive effects. Despite the instrumental texture data, which showed that bean tortillas had inferior attributes than the wheat control, consumers found the overall texture and acceptability of bean tortillas with and without guar gum on the range of “like very much” and “like moderately”, which was significantly higher than the wheat control (P < 0.01). Based on physical and sensorial properties it would appear that these foods are industrially feasible and highly acceptable by health-conscious consumers.
... In light of this, efforts are being made to induce people to replace refined cereals with whole and ancient grains [9,10]. In addition, researchers are trying to improve the nutritional proprieties of the most widely used cereal products such as bread or tortillas through the incorporation of legumes and rye flour, flaxseeds, and other ingredients [11][12][13][14]. Likewise, sourdough has been successfully applied to improve the quality of gluten-free bread [15]. ...
Recently, a large and growing body of literature has investigated the health potential of different wheat species. In particular, a considerable number of studies dealing with nutritional aspects has grown up around the theme of the recovery of ancient wheat varieties (species that have remained unchanged over the last hundred years). According to several studies, indeed, ancient varieties present a healthier nutritional profile than modern ones. In the framework of the European project "CERERE, CEreal REnaissance in Rural Europe: embedding diversity in organic and low-input food systems", this paper aimed to review recent research on the issue of health and nutritional cereal systems by adopting an innovative and participatory multi-actor approach which involved practitioners along with researchers. The participatory approach is the main innovation and peculiarity of this literature review. Nevertheless, the review highlights the many positive effects derived from eating whole and ancient grains such as a significant reduction in the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and also a more favorable long-term weight management and increase in satiety. This review may be considered as a fruitful starting point that integrates research results to foster current and future healthier and sustainable practices in cereal systems.
... In light of this, efforts are being made to induce people to replace refined cereals with whole and ancient grains [9,10]. In addition, researchers are trying to improve the nutritional proprieties of the most widely used cereal products such as bread or tortillas through the incorporation of legumes and rye flour, flaxseeds, and other ingredients [11][12][13][14]. Likewise, sourdough has been successfully applied to improve the quality of gluten-free bread [15]. ...
Recently, a large and growing body of literature has investigated the health potential of different wheat species. In particular, a considerable number of studies dealing with nutritional aspects has grown up around the theme of the recovery of ancient wheat varieties (species that have remained unchanged over the last hundred years). According to several studies, indeed, ancient varieties present a healthier nutritional profile than modern ones. In the framework of the European project "CERERE, CEreal REnaissance in Rural Europe: embedding diversity in organic and low-input food systems", this paper aimed to review recent research on the issue of health and nutritional cereal systems by adopting an innovative and participatory multi-actor approach which involved practitioners along with researchers. The participatory approach is the main innovation and peculiarity of this literature review. Nevertheless, the review highlights the many positive effects derived from eating whole and ancient grains such as a significant reduction in the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and also a more favorable long-term weight management and increase in satiety. This review may be considered as a fruitful starting point that integrates research results to foster current and future healthier and sustainable practices in cereal systems.
... The natural, synthetic and biotechnological hydrocolloids, because of their high water-binding capacity and their structure-creating behaviour, are mostly used in the different recipes for replacing the gluten network and its functionality (Houben et al., 2012). Water availability plays a crucial role in the functionality of hydrocolloids by binding to the macromolecules in three different ways: via hydrogen bounds, embedded in inter-or intramolecular openings, or immobilized by structuring (Anton, 2008). The modified cellulose derivative hydroxypropylmethylcellulose -HPMC-(linear and neutral polymer) has, because of its hydrophilic character, a high water-binding capacity and also has, in its structure, hydrophobic methyl and hydrophilic hydroxypropyl groups located, which makes HPMC an interface activity in the dough system during the resting period promoting dispersion and preventing coalescence of the gas bubbles. ...
The impact of associated viscous dietary fibres (hydroxypropylmethylcellulose semi-firm – SFE- and weak – NE-gel forming, and barley ß-glucan, BBG) incorporated at different amounts (1.6–7.5%, flour basis) into gluten-free rice-based dough formulations on the breadmaking performance and staling behaviour of hydrated (70–110%, flour basis) fibre-flour composite blends has been investigated. Single BBG addition fails to mimic gluten visco-elasticity properly, but simultaneous incorporation of either SFE or NE contributes to bread improvement in terms of bigger volume and smoother crumb. 3.3 g of BBG (70% purity) and 104 mL of water addition to 100 g rice flour provided sensorially accepted breads (7.6/10) with a theoretical ß-glucan content of 1.24 g per 100 g GF bread that would allow a daily ß-glucan intake of 3 g provided a bread consumption of 240 g day−1. Complementary tests should be carried out to know the amount and molecular weight of ß-glucan in the final bread before assuring the nutritional benefit of this addition.
en Corn tortillas fortified with soybean presscake (SP) and defatted soy flour (SF) were studied and compared. Texture, including firmness and cohesiveness, and color, using a CIE L*a*b*, were determined instrumentally. Physical properties such as size, thickness, and rollability, were also investigated. A consumer acceptance test was conducted to evaluate the acceptance of tortillas at high levels of soy fortification (35% SF and 40% SP). Tortillas fortified with soy were found to be smaller and thicker with increased firmness and cohesiveness. Tortillas made with SF showed the poorest rollability, and were almost unrollable at high SF fortification levels (30% and 35%). Soy fortified tortillas were more red and yellow than control corn tortillas. In the consumer acceptance test, 40% SP and 35% SF had high overall acceptability scores (6 to 6.6 on a 9‐point scale) based on all participants (n = 76). In addition, overall flavor and texture of both soy fortified corn tortillas scored above 6. Thus, while fortification with SP and SF had significant effects on tortilla size, thickness, firmness, cohesiveness, rollability, and color, these changes were acceptable to consumers.
Practical Application
pt Promotion of the use of soy presscake as a food ingredient, especially in bakery products.
Tortilla is the most popular type of bread both in South and Central America. Since the demand for this bread among different classes of society is significant, improving its nutrient content could be important. Distillers dried grains with solubles is good source of fiber and protein, and can be used in the fortification of tortilla. In this study, three levels of DDGS (0, 10 and 20 %) were substituted for wheat flour and the physical and chemical properties of the resulting products were evaluated. Results showed that for the 20 % DDGS level, minimum force was required to rupture the tortilla. The color of the tortillas substituted with 10 and 20 % DDGS were darker, being 64.11 and 59.99, respectively (P < 0.05). As for chemical properties, the samples fortified with 10 and 20 % DDGS had higher protein (9.35 and 10.78 % dried basis), fiber (2.21 and 2.33 % dried basis) and fat (23.60 and 24.65 % dried basis) values at P < 0.05. Thus, it appeared that using DDGS in wheat tortillas can improve some of the nutritional values such as protein and fiber as well as the textural properties of these breads. Further work should examine consumer acceptability of these products.
The market for gluten-free products is increasing. Owing to better diagnostic methods, more and more people are identified to have coeliac diseases. Production of bakery products that do not harm these people is a big challenge for bakers and cereal scientists in the twenty-first century. The use of different cereals and flours makes it necessary to find possibilities to take over the task of gluten by other flour ingredients, by the addition of different components, by different flour and dough treatment or by changing the method of baking. The purpose of this review is to give an overview about the various possibilities to increase the baking quality of gluten-free bakery products, increasing their water-binding capacity, uniform the crumb structure and increase the final bread volume. All the listed methods and ingredients are already in single use helpful to increase the quality in gluten-free bread production.
Polenta is a porridge-like dish, generally made by mixing cornmeal with salt water and stirring constantly while cooking over a low heat. It can be eaten plain, straight from the pan, or topped with various foods (cheeses, meat, sausages, fish, etc.). It is most popular in northern Italy but can also be found in Switzerland, Austria, Croatia, Argentina and other countries in Eastern Europe and South America. Despite this diffusion, there are no data concerning the sensory characteristics of this product. A research study was therefore carried out to define the lexicon for a sensory profile of polenta and relationships with corn cultivars.
A lexicon with 13 sensory parameters was defined and validated before references were determined. After panel training, the sensory profiles of 12 autochthonous maize cultivars were defined.
The results of this research highlighted that quantitative descriptive analysis can also be used for the sensory description of polenta, and that the defined lexicon can be used to describe the sensory qualities of polenta for both basic research, such as maize selection, and product development.
New survey reveals that tortilla sales continue record growth. Re-trieved
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Talkin' about tortillas: Producers look toward consumer education and new mar-kets to continue sales momentum
- M Cornell
Cornell, M. 1998. Talkin' about tortillas: Producers look toward consumer education and new mar-kets to continue sales momentum. Baking and Snack Magazine 20:37–44.
Baking quality of triticale flour
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Tsen, C.C., Hoover, W.J., Farrel, E.P. 1973. Baking quality of triticale flour. Cereal Chemistry 50:16–26.
Flatbread by design. Baking and Snack International
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Effects of additives in wheat flour tor-tillas
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Friend, C.P., Ross, R.G., Waniska, R.D., Rooney, L.W. 1995. Effects of additives in wheat flour tor-tillas. Cereal Foods World 40:494–497.
Beneficial effects of hydrocolloids in Tortilla processing are discussed. Hydrocolloids enhance the flexibility and strength of tortillas and reduce stickiness during processing and packaging. They increase postbake moisture levels, slow the staling process, and extend shelf life. Careful selection of hydrocolloids is required due to their different functions, which are related to their varied structures and interactions.
Chapatti, a flat unleavened Indian bread made of whole-wheat flour is traditionally prepared in households by hand sheeting of dough followed by baking on hot griddle and is consumed fresh. Investigations were made to study the effect of various hydrocolloids (guar gum, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), κ-carrageenan) when added to chapatti dough on fresh chapatti quality as well as on stored chapatti texture. Improvement in chapatti quality parameters such as extensibility, force to tear, color characteristics and sensory acceptability were monitored. Quality parameters (extensibility, force to tear, color) and sensory properties of chapatti both when fresh and after storage for 2 and 5 days at room temperature (30±2 °C) and refrigerated temperature (4±1 °C) were analyzed. Hydrocolloids were incorporated at various levels ranging between 0.25% and 1.0% w/w of whole wheat flour. Amongst the hydrocolloids studied guar gum gave the highest extensibility for fresh and stored chapatti. The force required to tear the fresh chapatti was decreased with hydrocolloid addition however guar gum addition at 0.75% w/w of whole wheat flour gave the softest chapatti. Extensibility of stored chapatti was significantly decreased with storage both at room as well as refrigeration temperature however refrigerated chapatti containing guar gum showed less loss in extensibility upto a period of 2 days. There was no significant effect on color of chapattis due to addition of hydrocolloids, and sensory acceptability was found to be higher than that of control chapatti.
The physical development of muscle, bone, and blood in pigs fed diets containing different forms of tortillas was evaluated. The tortilla products included corn tortillas (TN), TN with a mixture of 0.15% vitamins and minerals (TNV), TN with 4% (as is) defatted soy paste (TNS), corn flour tortillas (TH), TH with vitamins (THV), and TH with soy paste (THS). The femur weight of pigs fed the TNS and THS diets was higher (P > .05) than those of pigs fed TN, TNV, TH, and THV diets. Calcium in femurs was lower for the TN and TH diets compared with TNV, THV, TNS, and THS diets. Blood analysis showed that the hematocrit, hemoglobin, and erythrocytes values were optimal in pigs fed TNS and THS. Tortilla fortification with soy may have important nutritional benefits based on the evaluation in the pig growth and development model.
Cereal Chem. 81(2):220-225 The potential of triticale as a partial or total substitute for wheat in flour tortilla production was evaluated. Different mixtures of triticale and wheat flours were tested in a typical hot-press formulation. Both grains yielded similar amounts of flour. Wheat flour contained 1.5% more crude protein, 1.6× more gluten, and produced stronger dough than triticale. Triticale flour significantly reduced optimum water absorption and mix time of blends. Flour tortillas with 100% triticale absorbed 8% less water and required 25% of the mix time of the control wheat flour tortilla. The yield of triticale tortillas was lower than the rest of the tortillas due to lower moisture content and water absorption. Triticale dough balls required less proofing and ruptured during hot pressing, thus producing defective tortillas. The 50:50 flour mixture produced doughs with accep- table rheological properties and good quality tortillas. Addition of 1% vital gluten to the 75:25 triticale-wheat flour mix or 2% to the 100% triticale flour significantly increased water absorption and mix time and improved dough properties and tortilla yields. Textural studies indicated that increasing levels of triticale flour reduced the force required to rupture tortillas. For all tortilla systems, rupture force gradually increased, and extensibility decreased during seven days of storage at room tem- perature; the highest rate of change occurred during the first day. Sensory evaluation tests indicated that triticale could substitute for 50% of wheat flour without affecting texture, color, flavor, and overall acceptability of tortillas. For production of 100% triticale flour tortillas, at least 2% vital gluten had to be added to the formulation.
Cereal Chem. 76(4):496-502 Wheat flour tortillas were made from flour streams of three wheat cul- tivars: Jagger hard red winter wheat, 4AT-9900 hard white winter wheat, and Ernie soft red winter wheat. Wheat samples were milled on a Miag ex- perimental mill. Twelve flour streams and one straight-grade flour were obtained. Tortillas were made from each flour stream and the straight- grade flour by the hot-press method. Tor tilla stretchability and foldability were evaluated by a texture analyzer and six panelists, respectively. Flour protein and water absorption affected tortilla texture. The foldability eval- uated by panelists was positively correlated with flour protein content, farinograph water absorption, and damaged starch ( P < 0.05). The 2BK and 3BK streams of hard wheat produced tortillas with str ong stretch- ability and good foldability. Middling streams of hard wheat yielded tortillas with lighter color and less stretchab ility. Under the conditions tested in this study, soft wheat flours were not good for producing flour tor tillas.
Soluble and insoluble fibres influenced both the quality and microstructure of dough and wheat flour tortillas. Doughs containing 8% soluble fibre had poor gluten development and extensive starch gelatinization during baking. This resulted in a tortilla with a dense, pasty crumb. Doughs containing 8% insoluble fibre had better gluten structures than those prepared using soluble fibres. Strands of insoluble fibre particles, however, physically disrupted the gluten network, causing the air bubbles to collapse, and decreased the shelf-stability of tortillas. It appears that soluble and insoluble fibres weaken the gluten matrix by different mechanisms.
The effect of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) addition on a basic bread formulation is described. The effect of HPMC as bread improver and antistaling agent was analysed in terms of microstructure. Bread quality was assessed by physical parameters (volume, width/height ratio, moisture content and hardness), crumb grain structure (number of air cells, cells area and the ratio between cells area and total area) and sensory evaluation (appearance, aroma, taste and texture). Bread staling was determined by following both the hardness increase and the starch retrogradation during storage. The microstructure was analyzed by cryo scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM). The results confirm the ability of the HPMC for improving fresh bread quality and for delaying staling. The presence of HPMC decreased the hardening rate of the bread crumb and also retarded the amylopectin retrogradation. The microstructure analysis revealed the possible interaction between the HPMC and the bread constituents, which could partially explain the antistaling effect of this hydrocolloid.
Wheat flour fortified with 11.1% defatted soybean meal (SBM) or 5.6% soybean isolate (SBI) was processed into flour tortillas. Fortified tortillas contained 35% more protein and twice as much lysine as the 100% wheat flour tortilla. Addition of SBM or SBI decreased dough elasticity but increased dough water absorption and the force required to stretch the dough. The SBM fortified tortilla had better texture (P < 0.05) than the 100% wheat flour tortilla and similar flavor and color (P > 0.05). Rats fed fortified tortillas gained three times as much weight and doubled the protein efficiency ratio (PER) when compared to rats fed wheat flour tortillas. The apparent biological and net protein utilization values of the fortified tortillas were similar (P > 0.05) and higher (P < 0.05) than the wheat flour tortilla. The SBI fortified tortilla had a higher apparent protein digestibility (P < 0.05) than the 100% wheat flour and SBM fortified tortillas.
Corn and flour tortillas were sampled at 2-wk intervals for 6 wk from five tortilla factories and the nutritional composition determined. Corn tortillas were found to be slightly lower in protein, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin when compared to white enriched bread. A lowering of the pH of the corn masa to 7.3 or lower improved the retention of these vitamins. Flour tortillas were found to be comparable in nutrition to white enriched bread when enriched wheat flour was used in the manufacture of tortillas. A wide variation was found to exist in the nutrient composition of both corn and flour tortillas manufactured by the different factories. This variation is attributed to different formulation procedures at the tortilla factories.
The use of refrigeration or positive temperature storage as an alternative to frozen storage for extending the shelf life of partially baked bread is described. In addition, the effect of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) on the baking performance of those products is detailed. With this purpose, the quality and shelf life of the bread from partially baked bread stored at frozen temperatures (−25 °C) for 42 days was compared with those of that from positive temperature stored partially baked bread (2 °C) stored for 10 days. In both cases, batches in the presence and absence of HPMC were performed. The characteristics evaluated were the microstructure by cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), the sensory quality, the technological properties (specific volume, moisture content, width/height ratio, crumb hardness), the crumb grain and the staling rate. The microstructure of the bread crumb from the positive temperature stored sample was almost intact compared with that of the bread from its frozen counterpart. The positive temperature storage led to bread with better specific volume, low crumb hardness and slower hardening rate during staling than the bread stored at frozen temperatures. Regarding the sensory quality, loaves from positive temperature stored par-baked bread did not differ in appearance and aroma, but had lower scores in taste and texture than the samples from frozen par-baked bread. The presence of HPMC improved the technological parameters and diminished the staling rate without affecting the sensory attributes. The beneficial effect of the HPMC was more evident on the samples from frozen par-baked bread, showing a microstructure without any damage due to ice crystals growth and similar to that observed in the samples from positive temperature stored par-baked bread.
The effect of several hydrocolloids on the pasting properties and gelling behaviour of wheat flour was investigated. The influence of the selected hydrocolloids (guar gum, pectin, alginate, κ-carrageenan, xanthan and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC)) on wheat flour was tested by using two different techniques: amylograph and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In order to have a general overview of their effect, hydrocolloids were chosen from different sources implying a broad diversity of chemical structures. Differences among hydrocolloid-wheat flour suspensions were more evident from amylographic analysis than from DSC examination. The hydrocolloid addition largely modified the amylograph parameters of wheat flour—even at the low levels tested [0.5 and 1% (w/w), flour basis], and the extent of their effect depended upon the chemical structure of the added hydrocolloid. The greatest effect on pasting temperature was observed when 1% alginate was added, which produced a decrease of ca 3°C. This reduction is really important since it implies an earlier beginning of starch gelatinization and, in turn, an increase in the availability of starch as enzyme substrate during baking period. Xanthan and pectin increased the cooking stability while κ-carrageenan and alginate did not modify it. Setback was augmented by guar gum and HPMC but alginate, xanthan and κ-carrageenan showed the opposite effect. The bump area related to the formation of amylose–lipid complex, was favoured by κ-carrageenan, alginate and pectin, and slightly affected by xanthan and HPMC. In summary, each tested hydrocolloid affected in a different way the pasting properties of wheat flour. The results obtained are important for the appropriate use of these hydrocolloids as ingredients in the bread making process.
Cereal Chem. 83(3):269–274 Bread was prepared from wheat flour and wheat flour fortified with either 3, 5, and 7% legume hulls or insoluble cotyledon fibers, or with 1, 3, and 5% soluble cotyledon fibers isolated from pea, lentil, and chickpea flours. Incorporation of hulls or insoluble fibers resulted in increases in dough water absorption by 2–16% and increases in mixing time of dough by 22–147 sec. Addition of soluble fiber resulted in decreases in water absorption as the substitution rate increased and similar mixing times to the control dough. Loaf weights of breads containing hulls or insoluble fibers were generally higher than that of control bread at 149.4–166.5 g. However, the loaf volume of breads fortified with legume hulls and fibers (685–1,010 mL) was lower than that of the control bread (1,021 mL). Breads containing soluble fibers were more attractive in terms of crumb uniformity and color than breads containing either hulls or insoluble fibers. Breads fortified with legume hulls and fibers were higher in mois-ture content than control bread regardless of the type, source, or fortification rate. Bread fortified with up to 7% hulls or insoluble cot-yledon fibers or up to 3% soluble cotyledon fibers, with the exception of 7% insoluble pea fiber, exhibited similar firmness after seven days of storage compared with the control bread, despite their smaller loaf volume. Breads containing hull fibers exhibited the lowest starch transi-tion enthalpies as determined by DSC after seven days of storage, while the starch transition enthalpies of breads containing added soluble or insoluble fiber were not significantly different from the control bread.
Resurgent interest incommodities is linked to recent attempts toovercome the constraints posed by the binariesof economy/culture and production/consumption.Commodities and commodification represent acontentious convergence of economic, social,cultural, political, and moral concerns. Thisessay develops a conceptual framework forunderstanding this interconnectedness byexamining the relationship between commoditiesand our discourse, practices, and assumptionsabout food. We argue that the movement of afood artifact between local/global andglobal/local contexts is mediated by dynamicsof power and resistance that represent contestsof meaning regarding the criteria of that artifact's exchangeability. We apply thisframework to the case of the tortilla, tracingits social life through an historical accountof its transformation from the staple food ofthe Mayan and Aztec people to its introductionas a fast food component of the diets of21st century Americans. This exampledemonstrates that food provides a powerful lensthrough which to trace and illustrate theinterconnectedness between material andsymbolic exchanges around the world that arecommonly associated with globalization.
Lipid binding of straight/soured started bread doughs treated with sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose
(HPMC), fungal α-amylase and monoglycerides (MGL), diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono-diglycerides (DATEM) and sodium stearoyl
lactylate (SSL) was investigated and results correlated with dough and bread performance during breadmaking and storage. For
doughs formulated with MGL or DATEM, free and bound lipids accounted, respectively, for 70% and 30% of the increase in non-starchy
lipids, which preferentially bind to gluten (MGL) and to the outside part of the starch granules (DATEM). SSL mainly increased
the pool of free lipids and preferentially bound to the inside part of the starch granules and loosely to the gluten. Hydrocolloids
preferentially bound to the gluten (CMC) and to the outside part of the starch granules (HPMC) respectively; this was associated
with a significant displacement of endogenous gluten-bounded lipids to the starchy fraction (CMC) and with a significant decrease
in lipids bound to the outside part of the starch granules (HPMC). The addition of α-amylase promoted a release of endogenous,
bound lipids, and the sourer starter induced the aggregation of the starch-lipid complexes, revealed by the respective decrease
in the level of gluten bounded lipids (α-amylase) and increase in the level of starchy lipids. Desired trends in dough lipid
parameters resulting in strengthened gluten, delayed starch gelatinization, softer bread and reduced/delayed bread staling
corresponded to high values of both free and starchy lipids, achieved by the incorporation of SSL and/or CMC into doughs.
Supplementations of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flours at 5, 10, 15 and 20% levels were carried out to test the effects on organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of the supplemented bread. Additions of 15% barley flour, 10% soy flour (full fat and defatted), 15% barley plus full fat soy flour and 15% barley plus defatted soy flour to wheat flour produced acceptable breads. However, substitution of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flour separately and in combinations at 20% levels did not produce organoleptically acceptable bread. Various nutritional parameters, such as protein, fat, total lysine, protein digestibility (in vitro), sugars, starch digestibility (in vitro), total and available minerals, antinutrients, dietary fibre and β-glucan were determined in supplemented and control bread. Increasing the level of substitution from 5 to 10% of full fat and defatted soy flour to wheat flour significantly (P<0.05) increased protein (from 12.1 to 13.7 and 12.4 to 13.8%), lysine (from 2.74 to 3.02 and 2.76–3.05 mg/100 g protein) and total calcium (from 70.2 to 81.4 and 71.9–81.8 mg/100 g) contents. However, there was also an increase in phytic acid (238–260 and 233–253 mg/100 g), polyphenol (324–331 and 321–329 mg/100 g) and trypsin inhibitor activity (193–204 and 193–198 TIU/g). When barley flour was substituted separately, and in combinations, with full fat and defatted soy flour up to 15%, this significantly increased the contents of protein, total lysine, dietary fibre and β-glucan. It may be concluded that breads supplemented with barley and defatted soy flour, up to a 15% level, are organoleptically and nutritionally acceptable.
Supplementation of several hydrocolloids with different chemical structure and from diverse origin to the breadmaking process is presented. The effect of hydrocolloids (sodium alginate, xanthan, κ-carrageenan and hydroxypropylmethycellulose) on fresh bread quality and its influence on bread staling were studied. Physical properties (moisture, hardness, volume) and sensory properties of fresh bread and after storage of 24 h were analysed. Hydrocolloids affected in different extent to the fresh bread quality, and concentrations of 0.1% (w/w, flour basis) were sufficient for obtaining the observed effects. Although different improvements were observed associated to specific hydrocolloid, HPMC was the hydrocolloid with an improvement effect on all the parameters tested, specific volume index, width/height ratio, and crumb hardness; in addition good sensory properties for visual appearance, aroma, flavour, crunchiness and overall acceptability was obtained. All hydrocolloids were also able to reduce the loss of moisture content during bread storage, reducing the dehydration rate of crumb. In addition, during storage, alginate and HPMC showed an anti-staling effect, retarding the crumb hardening.
Developing no- and low-fat products is a high priority for the food industry. Given the variety of fat replacers available, how does a product developer decide which to use? Fat replacers can be divided into three classes on the basis of their composition: protein-based, carbohydrate-based and fat-based. Each has different functional properties that provide both advantages and limitations in specific applications. Presently there is no ‘silver bullet’ — no single fat replacer that contributes all of the desired sensory and functional qualities to all products. A systems approach, one that makes use of a combination of two or more wisely chosen fat replacers, coupled with formula and procedural changes appears to be the best current strategy.
Grain legumes occupy an important place in human nutrition, especially in the dietary pattern of low-income groups of people in developing countries. Legumes, considered as poor man's meat, are generally good sources of slow release carbohydrates and are rich in proteins. Legumes are normally consumed after processing, which not only improves palatability of foods but also increases the bioavailability of nutrients, by inactivating trypsin and growth inhibitors and haemagglutinins. Starch, the major biopolymeric constituent of legumes, upon processing gets partially modified into resistant starch (RS). The latter, a man made functional dietary fibre, is a unique ingredient that can yield high quality foods, in addition to its significance on faecal bulk and butyrate production, which are the putative markers of colonic health of humans. The slow and reduced digestibility of legume starch has been attributed to its amylose, which is considerably branched and is of high molecular weight. Dietary fibre, which is a heterogeneous mixture of several types of polysaccharides, is rich in legumes, especially in their husk fractions and contributes to beneficial therapeutic health effects.
The influence of mono- and diacylglycerols esterified to mono- and diacetyltartaric acid (DATEM) and guar gum on dynamic rheological behaviour, starch gelatinization, microstructure and bread properties of frozen dough were analysed. The results obtained showed that the dough freezing and storage at −18 °C decreased the bread quality. The dough freezing and frozen storage provoked a decrease in the complex modulus (G∗) and the storage modulus (G′) showing a reduction in dough firmness and elasticity. Structural damage caused on dough ultra structure through frozen storage was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Starch gelatinization was affected by additives and by dough storage at −18 °C. DATEM and gum guar improved volume and texture of bread obtained from non-frozen and frozen dough, but neither DATEM nor gum guar could avoid the effect of dough frozen storage on the dynamic rheological parameters and microstructure damage.
Full fat lupin, soya and triticale flour were added to a medium strength wheat flour. The added flour was used to replace 5 and 10% w/w of wheat flour. The effects of lupin, soya and triticale flour supplementation on physical dough properties, such as water absorption capacity, dough development time, dough stability, crumb, porosity and bread structure and quality characteristics were studied. Lupin and soya flour, at 5 and 10% substitution levels, increased the stability and the tolerance index of the dough. The volumes of the breads decreased as the level of lupin and soya flour increased due to the dilution of the gluten structure by the added protein. In the case of triticale substitution, the volumes of the breads increased as the level of triticale flour increased due to the fortification of the gluten structure by the gluten added. Nevertheless, substitution, at 5 or 10%, gives parameter values at least as good as the control sample and produce an acceptable bread, in terms of weight, volume, texture and crumb structure.